Understanding the Contextual Problem
Pastoralism can be traced to millions of years in man’s chronological order of events and in consideration of the Darwinian theory of evolution to the domestication of animals. Approximately 2 million years ago, soon after the dawn of Homo Erectus had commenced the domestication of plants and animals, proved by fossil evidences such as the fossil evidences of domesticated rice found accompanying the dead in Laos and Burma. The African species were believed to domesticate dogs as ice sheets melted globally, and settlements became more common. Evidence of domestication is common all-over East Africa.
In 2005 Sudan saw the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which would facilitate the creation of a new nation South Sudan, the world’s youngest country. It meant an international demarcation body was facilitating the creation of a border between the countries. This posed a major concern as several factors, such as natural resources and key trading stations, had to be considered. The stakeholders had a headache considering events such as the Indian/ Pakistan riots in 1945, which saw the deaths of one million individuals due to careless demarcation of boundaries.
The fears of the international monitoring community mishandling the process were confirmed in the war for Abyei and Heglieg (Panthou). It saw the deaths of hundreds of troops on both sides, an international mandate’s intervention, and the creation of a demilitarized area manned by United Nations troops. The conflict was not limited to the areas of Abyei and Panthou but encompassed nearly the entire border region. The most common tactic was shelling and air rides complemented by the use of tribal militia. The conflict can therefore be attributed to the negligence of the international community.
Catalysts and Facilitators of the Conflict
Tribal militias and movements were a major theme in the conflict as the war turned into a ‘cold war’ model. The victims became the tribes and communities settled in the border region as they were turned into pawns of both systems. Pastoralist communities whose destination of origin, despite seasonal migration, is Sudan were transformed into militias, the ‘Darfur militia model.’ The most dreaded was the Popular Defense Forces, an alias of Janjaweed Arab militia in Kordofan state and northern sector in South Sudan.
The South supported several entities in a civil war that started as a result of complaints by a branch of the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army in North Sudan. Entities allied to the people’s movement, such as Sudan Liberation Army, were also provided with military logistical support and bases (Garang, 2011). Allegations of civil war support were believed to spark support for the opposition in the first South Sudanese civil war as Sudan turned to militia commanders of the South who served their interests. Therefore, accusation, espionage, and sabotage were the themes of bilateral relations.
Tribes provided their sons to militias and movements backed by the South and North Sudan, many of whom were settled in the border region of the two countries. The tribes include; Misserya Humor, Baggara Rizaygat, Al Ahamda, Hiemid, Sabaha, Nuzi, Dar Mirahib, Kinana, and Felata, all whose destination of origin was Sudan. Nuer of Unity state, Dinka Ngok, Dinka Malwal, Jur Mathiang, and Nuba of Kordufan mostly served southern interests, to mention a few of the allies of the people’s movement. We can therefore conclude the border war created communal rifts.
The areas in the border region disputed are; Renk in Upper Nile, Magenis, Kaka Town, Baharel Arab, Kafia Kingi, and Abyei box (Abyei and Heglieg). These areas are heavily militarized, with regular fighting between militias and the people’s movement. The United Nations is a crucial player as an oversight body and peacekeeper in nearly all the disputed areas. The civil wars have revolved within these regions complemented by international powers who have a stake in natural resources such as iron, uranium, Gum Arabica, uranium, gold, and oil.
Natural resources have encouraged further fighting in the border region termed as ‘Golden Triangle’ by many observers. A region that presumably encompasses the wealthiest piece of land in Africa, covering six states in greater Sudan. A focus on oil led to a study in the regions of Abyei and Panthou(Heglieg), which saw a confrontation between the armies of the nations heavily backed by first-world countries. The fighting hit world headlines and sparked nationalistic feelings in both countries, similar to Pakistan and India. The media thus was a catalyst in the border war.
Solution to the Seasonal Crises
Despite the existence of a United Nations Mission in the Abyei box- the United Nations Interim Security Force in Abyei- constant human rights abuses by militias continue to exist. The demilitarized zone has very few United Nations troops to man the vast territory and has seen the persecution of civilians by northern militias. Illegal gas and oil extraction are also taking place under the mandate within the Abyei box. The motivation of militias in the areas is natural resources, specifically oil and gas reserves; thus, a displacement and an ethnic cleansing attempt are in play.
In other areas, key trading centers fuel conflict, especially in Upper Nile and Baha ghazel region. Key trading centers such as Rank and Magenis are custom entry and exit points and greatly contribute to South Sudan’s Gross Domestic Income. Local militias are utilized, unlike Abyei and Panthou; offshoots of the people’s movement are utilized to cause havoc. Thus, a significant concentration of fighting occurs in this town considering the South Sudanese civil war, which started in 2013, called custom metropolis centers.
Pastoralism can be considered the root cause of conflict and is co-related with all economic and social causes of war. Considering the traditional routes of northern Arab tribes such as the Rezigat and Misserya through Dinka and Nuer territories, the Sudan regime exploited these phenomena to acquire vital strategic areas in the contested areas by creating regional militias from these communities. The same militias are also utilized to support allies in the South Sudan civil war, such as fighting in key trading centers such as Renk and Melut.
Pastoralism, a natural and human phenomenon, is difficult to monitor in a human-imposed boundary. Traditional rivalries such as the Dinka and Misserya rivalry have taken the state angle and seen the use of modern weapons and trained personnel such as the Sudan People’s Liberation Army commandos. This has led to devastating consequences for both parties. Several international organizations, such as the International Organization for Migration and the United Nations Mandates, are breeding a truce, working with the states to attain a permanent ceasefire.
An international, governmental and community effort looks like the only viable solution for the pastoralist’ and militia induced conflict in the six states of Sudan and South Sudan.
References
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Biehl. (2013). Homo Erectus . International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioural Sciences
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Edingurgh, T. U. (2012). Agreement between the republic of the Sudan and the republic of South Sudan on the demarcation of the boundary. Peace Agreements Database
Garang, N. A. (2011). SPLM-N denies getting support from South Sudan and ,members arrested . Juba: Sudan Tribune
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International Organization for Migration . (2018). Joint press release IOM and FAO: Dinka and Misserya communities sign peace agreement at three day migration conference . Abyei : reliefWeb
IRN news. (2015). The roots of Abyei’s dangerous impasse. Nairobi: AfricaReport
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Benedict Kuol is a GRFDT research intern as well as a Finance graduate from Strathmore University in Kenya. He is also a student of the Global Compact for Migration. He is an upcoming passionate writer.